ID 9364
Lassner, Waltraud Gerda: Management Consulting at Faculties of Design - Opportunities
and Limitations - An Investigation into carrying out Reforms in German Higher Education
with the main Focus on Reform Attempts within the Study of Design. Case Study
Approach
Druck Diplomica GmbH, Hamburg, 2006
Zugl.: Fachhochschule Ludwigshafen, MA-Thesis / Master, 2004
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Dissertation
I
Dissertation
submitted in part fulfilment of the examination requirements for the award of an MBA
degree in International Management Consulting awarded by the University of Lincoln
and Fachhochschule Ludwigshafen.
Title
Management Consulting at Faculties of Design Opportunities and Limitations.
An Investigation into carrying out Reforms in German Higher Education with the main
Focus on Reform Attempts within the Study of Design Case Study Approach.
Graduate
Waltraud Gerda Lassner
Allgäuer Strasse 20
D-86391 Stadtbergen
waltraudlassner@web.de
German Supervisor
Professor Dr. Christel Niedereichholz
Fachhochschule Ludwigshafen
English Supervisor
Bill Leather
University of Lincoln
University of Lincoln, United Kingdom
·
May 2004
·
Fachhochschule Ludwigshafen, Germany
Dissertation
International Management Consulting
II
Acknowledgements
The sections of this dissertation are, partly, made-up by interviews. The writer owes a
debt of gratitude to the many people who provided their time and knowledge to help her
develop a personal understanding of the topic.
The writer is particularly grateful for the active involvement of all the interviewees:
Dr. Arnhold, Prof. Dr. Brandes, Prof. Bufler, Dipl. Designer Pahlke and Dr. Sperling.
Many thanks to Prof. Dr. Niedereichholz, Prof. Dr. Reineke, Mrs Metzler and Mrs
Bitsch from Fachhochschule Ludwigshafen, who took a personal interest in the
development in each of their students. Throughout both study and dissertation their
assistance was very helpful.
Likewise the writer appreciates the support of Prof. Bujatti and Prof. Gailhofer in
promoting her professional development.
Naturally, this dissertation could not have been drawn up without the support of my
family who have always been a source of encouragement.
Dissertation
International Management Consulting
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Abstract
This dissertation deals with reforms in the German system of higher education and
investigates, whether these processes could be facilitated by management consultants.
The main focus is placed on design faculties. The investigation of the subject is based
on a case study approach.
The starting point within this three-part work is an introduction into the system of
higher education in Germany by providing information on the political, legal and
financial background, the structure and types and present challenges. The second part
moves the investigation towards the design faculties. An analysis of design practice and
education reveals both the situation design faculties find themselves in and initial
reform attempts. How the policy of reform could be followed through successfully is
answered in part three by presenting relevant consulting activities and projects in the
field of higher education. Opportunities and limitations, which can be expected from an
involvement of management consultants round off this part.
German higher education seemed to be in a continuous cycle of crises and is still seen
as having need of reforms in the face of future challenges. As statistical data reveal
institutions had and still have to cope with a decrease in federal funding and with an
increase of students. In the face of future challenges such as internationalisation and
globalisation they need to position themselves effectively by keeping in mind their
strengths. The new General Act on Higher Education encourages this step by granting
higher education institutions more autonomy. In turn these are expected to evolve into
target-oriented entrepreneurial institutions. This requires a fundamental reform such as
described in two current concepts for future higher education institutions: The
Unchained University and Guide for the Knowledge Based Society.
In the second part design faculties are looked at in more detail and also aspects of
design practice and education are examined based on statistical data. The overall picture
shows that major changes occurred in the area of design. This is reflected in the high
unemployment rate. Also, expectations from the industry are way beyond the
capabilities of a design student, who has studied for four years. This has consequences
for design education. In this context higher education conferences are mentioned which
addressed the current need for reforms. A fundamental change in the way that design is
viewed becomes evident. Research in the area of design has become a central issue,
which calls for an independent development. Some activities are mentioned such as the
foundation of the German Association for Design-Theory and -Research DGTF, which
was established with the aim of encouraging more thought about new perspectives of
design. The current situation design faculties find themselves in is outlined by
discussing the challenges that reform poses for them, such as profile building and
drawing up strategic planning. Also, current concepts are presented, which conform to
the requirements of future higher education institutions mentioned in part one. They
refer to design education, continuing education as well as co-operation, and demonstrate
creative approaches to problem solving.
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International Management Consulting
IV
In the following part the investigation reaches the central question of this dissertation:
whether management consultants can support reform processes at higher education
institutions and if so, what kind of assistance can design faculties expect. After having
provided a brief introduction into management consulting and into ways of carrying out
consulting tasks, consulting activities at higher education institutions are presented.
These provide the reader with a general idea on the spectrum of offered services, and
also reveal the use of standardised approaches when giving assistance to higher
education institutions. To elucidate opportunities of management consulting the Lean
Consulting Concept, a consulting product and method, and its adaptability to design
faculties are discussed. An evaluation of its suitability reveals that it makes sense to
adapt this product. Necessary steps are mentioned. Finally, opportunities and limitations
of an involvement of management consultants in reform projects at faculties are
discussed based on the writer's insight gained while compiling this dissertation.
The critical assessment of generated material leads to the following conclusions:
1. The establishment of organisations, which focus on providing consulting service
to higher education institutions reveals the necessity for professional support.
2. Management consultants play an important role in assisting reform activities at
higher education institutions by means of consulting approaches transferred
from the private sector.
3. Design faculties must develop entrepreneurial features and position themselves
effectively bearing the competition in mind.
4. The customised Lean Consulting Concept can be successfully applied to assist
the strategic planning process at design faculties.
5. Management consultants can contribute to a successful achievement of reform
requirements by providing their methodological competence and professional
experience as objective experts and facilitators. However, their expertise should
include extensive knowledge of higher education and design faculties
respectively.
6. The competition amongst providers of consulting services will be an indication
as to what extent higher education institutions and design faculties respectively
will rely on management consultants' expertise.
Dissertation
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Contents
Title ... I
Acknowledgements ... II
Abstract ... III
Contents ... V
Special Terms and Abbreviations ... VII
Introduction ... 1
Relationship to Previous Work ... 2
Methodology ... 5
Part One: Higher Education in Germany
1.1. Introduction ... 8
1.2. The German System of Higher Education ... 9
1.2.1. Background ... 9
1.2.2. Structure and Types ... 11
1.2.3. Present Challenges ... 13
1.3. Concepts for Future Higher Education Institutions ... 16
1.3.1. The Unchained University ... 16
1.3.2. Guide for the Knowledge Based Society ... 17
Part Two: The Study of Design in Germany
2.1. Introduction ... 18
2.2. Design in Practice ... 19
2.2.1. Professional Life ... 19
2.2.2. Success Factor Design ... 20
2.2.3. Design Policy and Promotion ... 20
2.2.4. Issues and Perspectives ... 22
2.3. Design in Higher Education ... 24
2.3.1. Historical Background ... 24
2.3.2. Design Faculty ... 25
2.3.3. Design Study ... 26
2.3.4. Issues and Perspectives ... 29
2.4. Present Concepts ... 31
2.4.1. Design Education - KISD ... 31
2.4.2. Design Continuing Education - d/s/z ... 32
2.4.3. Design Co-operation - Projects ... 33
Part Three: Management Consulting at Design Faculties
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Part Three: Management Consulting at Design Faculties
3.1. Introduction ... 35
3.2. Management Consulting ... 36
3.2.1. Background ... 36
3.2.2. Ways of carrying out Consulting Tasks ... 37
3.3. Consulting Activities at Higher Education Institutions ... 39
3.3.1. Institutions ... 39
3.3.2. Non-profit Organisations ... 39
3.3.3. Consulting Companies for Higher Education ... 40
3.3.4. Management Consulting Companies ... 41
3.4. Consulting Approach towards Design Faculties ... 43
3.4.1. Background ... 43
3.4.2. Lean Consulting Concept ... 44
3.4.2.1. General Description ... 44
3.4.2.2. Transferability to Design Faculties ... 47
3.4.2.3. Evaluation of Suitability ... 54
3.4.3. Opportunities and Limitations ... 55
Conclusions and Final Thoughts
4.1. Conclusions ... 61
4.2. Final Thoughts ... 65
Appendix 1: Interviews and Meetings ... 67
Appendix 2: Reference List Part One ... 68
Appendix 3: Reference List Part Two ... 69
Appendix 4: Reference List Part Three ... 71
Appendix 5: ICOGRADA Design Education Manifesto ... 73
Bibliography ... 74
Dissertation
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Special Terms and Abbreviations
arf
Association of
Organisational Development Ltd
Gesellschaft für
Organisationsentwicklung mbH
BAföG
Federal Education Assistance Act
Bundesausbildungsförderungsgesetz
BDA
Federal Organisation
of the German Employers' Federation
Bundesvereinigung der deutschen
Arbeitgeberverbände
BDU
Federal Organisation of
German Management Consultants
Bundesverband deutscher
Unternehmensberater e.V.
CHE
Centre for Higher Education Development
Centrum für Hochschulentwicklung
Competo
Competo-
Strategic Higher Education Marketing Ltd
Competo-
Strategisches Hochschulmarketing GmbH
DGTF
German Association for
Design-Theory and -Research
Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Design-Theorie und -Forschung e.V.
d/s/z
design school zollverein
design school zollverein
HEConsult
Higher Education Development
Consult Ltd,
Hochschulentwicklung
Consult GmbH,
HIS
Higher Education Information System Ltd
Hochschul-Informations-System GmbH
HoF
Institute for Higher Education Research
Institut für Hochschulforschung
HRG
General Act on Higher Education
Hochschulrahmengesetz
HRK
Rectors' Conference
Hochschulrektorenkonferenz
ICOGRADA
International Council
of Graphic Design Associations
Internationaler Rat
für Graphik-Design Gesellschaften
ICSID
International Council
of Societies of Industrial Design
Internationaler Rat
für Industrie-Design Gesellschaften
IFG
International Design Forum
Internationales Forum für Gestaltung
KISD
Köln International School of Design
Köln International School of Design
VDI
Technological Centre
Technologie Zentrum
WR
Science Council
Wissenschaftsrat
ZEvA
Assessment and Accrediting Centre
Hannover
Zentrale Evaluierungs- und
Akkreditierungsagentur Hannover
ZVS
Central Admissions Office
Zentralvergabestelle von Studienplätzen
Dissertation
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Introduction
In today's business world major events occur at a breathtaking pace, and there is little
time to respond. Organisations enterprises as well as public institutions are faced
with developments like globalisation, increased competition, which bring about
changes. Responding to change itself presents a significant challenge.
Higher education institutions are also affected by this situation. The development of the
German system of higher education is an important topic of discussion at universities
themselves, in politics, in the business world as well as in the media.
The idea that only deregulated university systems, which are autonomous and which
have a corresponding institutional profile, can deal with change is widely being
accepted. The various needs of mass universities cannot be met anymore by traditional
concepts of bureaucratic regulations and political influence. Therefore, according to
Müller-Böling (2000), Director of the Centre for Higher Education Development CHE,
only then when universities seriously start dealing with questions of objectives, profile
building and quality assurance can a big step forward be taken in the development of the
system of higher education.
Presently, in Germany reform efforts are carried out by the federal states in different
ways and by particularly dedicated universities. The new General Act on Higher
Education provides the higher education institutions with more autonomy and
responsibility. Müller-Böling (2003), is optimistic about the current reforms that are
taking place in higher education. In the article Die Reformuni he states that at least in
five areas significant changes occurred, which refer to organisational and financial
freedom, criteria for the allocation of funds, competition and transparency regarding
university performances, establishment of a professional higher education management
and issues regarding scientific excellence.
The question arises, whether reform policy could be managed more successfully with
the support of external management consultants. The major theme of this dissertation is
what kind of assistance higher education institutions, particularly design faculties, can
expect from management consultants in order to be able to face up to current
challenges.
Conferences, which recently took place, ICSID Design Congress in Hannover,
Conference at Ulmer Kuhberg and ADC-Conference on Education in Hamburg
confirmed the relevance of this dissertation's theme, since they all stressed the urgent
need for change.
The motivation for this dissertation results from a personal interest in design. The writer
is familiar with the problems, which may occur during studies and from personal
experience as a designer. Therefore, the reform, which is presently taking place, is
pursued with great interest.
Dissertation
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Relationship to Previous Work
The theoretical basis for this dissertation is formed by the sources listed in the
bibliography. In general, previous work has been reviewed as far as following points are
concerned: the reform of the system of higher education in Germany, developments in
the area of design and management consulting. Some of the sources, which seemed of
particular interest to the writer, have been listed and summarised.
In their work Higher Education Reform and Higher Education Management Hödl and
Zegelin (1999) analyse the present system and based on this predict the impact which
reform would have on the system. They also describe opportunities and limitations of
the strategic management model, when it is applied to universities. Grossmann (1997)
contributes a collection of articles in Reform of the Expert Organisations Hospital,
School, University. The issues, which institutions of higher education in Germany were
confronted with in the late 1990s and the subsequent reform activities are presented
from the different points of view of all parties concerned. Added to this, a general
description of benefits and problems at faculty level is provided.
The publications of the Centre for Higher Education Development CHE are based on its
activities and project experience. One of the early publications, the volume University in
Transition (Müller-Böling et al, 1998a), was the result of an international conference.
Possible reforms, the complex issues of university management and the trend towards
interdisciplinary orientation are discussed in depth. Müller-Böling's (2000) work The
Unchained University reflects his vision of a higher education reform. Examples of
CHE projects are included to highlight the importance of a goal-oriented strategic
concept within reform attempts. In this context a recently published reform concept
outlined by both the Rectors' Conference HRK and the Federal Organisation of the
German Employers' Federation BDA (2003) Guide for the Knowledge based Society
should be mentioned. Both concepts can be regarded as a demand for action towards
those who are politically responsible for bringing higher education institutions up to
date.
From the legal point of view the selection of literature is complemented by Reich's
(2002) summary and comment of the General Act on Higher Education. It provides
insight into the political and legal background relevant to the German higher education
system.
Below, publications and articles are mentioned which on the one hand describe
developments in the area of design and on the other hand activities, which indicate
tentative reform attempts and give an impression of the present situation. As will be
discussed later in full, we are dealing today with a fundamental change in the way that
design is viewed, which in turn has an impact on educational concepts.
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The Technological Centre VDI carried out a study Design and Innovation (Korte and
Mengel, 1997) to examine the way experts are dealing with design in reality. As far as a
new product is concerned, design is considered to be one of the most important non-
technical factors, which will determine how a product is received. For this reason design
is considered to play a major role in the German marketplace when it comes to
innovation and competition. In the publication Design and Design Centres (Zapp, 2000)
is shown how developments in the area of design are connected with historical, social,
economical and political aspects. Design centres are described as institutions, which
promote design through the interaction and co-operation of designers, enterprises,
government authorities and other organisations. The federal model with its huge number
of autonomous organisations is peculiar to Germany. This model includes advantages,
but also reflects a picture of fragmentation and it is debatable if design issues, such as
design education, are presented with sufficient energy.
The magazine design report includes a range of articles which refer to design education
and current challenges such as: design study, higher education reform, co-operation
projects and requirements of industry. One of the articles (Schuler, 2003) provide a
review of the last years since the foundation of the Kölner Modell that paved a new way
for design education. Köln International School of Design KISD, which resulted from
the Kölner Modell, is in the process of establishing its position internationally.
Furthermore, design school zollverein d/s/z is presented, which will start in 2006
(Godau, 2003). Absolutely new are this school's plans to target two areas: the creative
fields and the field of management. Seeing itself as an institution where research in
design and business design can take place, it is planning Master courses and PhD
programmes. Seminars and workshops are in the pipeline, which are to focus on both
the business and the design processes. Added to this, information is provided (Hubert,
2001) on how the course can be set for new ways of working with the industry without
being at its mercy. Since public funding has been massively slashed, co-operation
projects are an important source of outside funding.
The investigation of the nature of design has become a central issue for many educators.
In this context the foundation of the German Association for Design-Theory and -
Research DGTF in November 2002 should be noted. It was established with the aim of
encouraging more thought about design issues and developing new perspectives on
research. However, the absence of a social and scientific lobby, a scientific community,
is criticised (DGTF, 2003).
The developments mentioned above naturally pose a challenge for the institutions, first
of all to develop their individual profile and subsequently to establish themselves in a
competitive environment. Below publications are mentioned which formed the writer's
view on a successful involvement of management consultants.
In the publication Strategic Planning at Universities in Germany Streit (1997) provides
a scientific examination of opportunities and limitations with regard to strategic
planning at universities. Beside scientific models known from business management a
typical phase model used for strategic planning at universities is under discussion.
Checklists for planning processes and recommendations provide practical relevance.
Dissertation
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In the same context the collection of case studies and reports of experience in the
volume Strategy Development at Universities (Müller-Böling et al, 1998b) must be
mentioned. The reader is given an insight into how universities and management
consultants form strategies.
Lühr's (2001) work Successful Involvement of External Consultants reflects his
understanding regarding the relationship between consultant and client. He provides a
useful and practice-oriented guideline, which paves the way for a successful
collaboration and for sound results. Moreover, in this area the publications Management
Consulting Voulume 1 and Volume 2 of Niedereichholz should be mentioned, where
management consulting is comprehensively introduced. As Niedereichholz (2001) states
management consultants take upon themselves the responsibility for solving their
clients' long-term problems in different roles and by providing different ways of
carrying out consulting tasks. In this context consulting "products", which are defined
as an approach to solving comparable problems in different contexts, should be noted.
Several "products" are presented (Niedereichholz, 2003), which can be applied to solve
comparable issues of clients.
However, there are differences between higher education institutions and business
companies that have to be taken into account. Sporn (1992) highlights the fact that only
knowledge of duties, conflicts and distinctive features make the adequate transfer of
management concepts from business to universities possible. The publication
University Culture. Starting Point of Strategic Marketing Planning (Sporn, 1992)
provides helpful insight into the internal processes at universities.
Dissertation
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5
Methodology
The research approach, which would be best suited to study the chosen topic, was
thoroughly reflected. The following steps have been considered: selection of an
appropriate methodology, choice of a suitable research strategy and evaluation of
results.
Methodology is defined (White, 2000:20) as the approach used to investigate a subject,
and refers "...to the philosophical basis on which the research is founded." Therefore, it
is crucial to think about the research philosophy before data collection methods are
determined. Two controversial views on research philosophy can be identified
(Saunders, 2000): positivism and phenomenology. They have different advantages and
limitations in business and management.
When research reflects the principles of positivism the researcher will adopt the
philosophical stance of a natural scientist such as: objective measurement, deductive
verification or falsification of fundamental laws, generalisation based on sufficient
examples. Consequently, quantitative research is the corresponding research method.
Phenomenology is based on the assumption (ibid:86) that "...the social world of
business and management is far too complex to lend itself to theorising by definite
`laws' as is done in the physical sciences." The researcher is regarded as being a part of
the research process and observation is subjective. This approach is inductive in that it
looks at particular facts and then tries to relate them to the general picture. Qualitative
research is the corresponding research method. This approach is used (White, 2000:25)
in management and business "...to study the way organisations, groups and individuals
behave and interact."
Considering these two controversial views an inductive approach is regarded as suitable
in investigating the chosen topic. This decision is based on the following: The higher
education reform involves different parties with partly conflicting interests such as the
state and the higher education institutions; also the industry and the society amongst
others that have a stake in the development of the system of higher education.
Consequently the generated material will reflect the point of view of the respective
interest group. These particular facts will then be related to the general picture. In the
course of the analysis a multitude of material will be generated and critically assessed in
order to form the writer's views. The following questions will be answered:
·
What is the status quo of higher education institutions/design faculties?
·
Are there reform requirements?
·
Can management consultants meet these requirements?
·
What kind of assistance can be provided?
·
What are the opportunities and limitations?
Dissertation
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The choice of the research strategy that is defined (Saunders, 2000:92) as a general plan
of how the researcher will go about answering the research questions, is based on the
determined research approach. According to Saunders the researcher has to define clear
objectives, specify the intended sources from which data will be collected and consider
the constraints which inevitably will arise. Experiment, survey, case study, grounded
theory, ethnography and action research are regarded as the main strategies.
A case study approach is considered to be an appropriate research strategy to answer the
above mentioned research questions. Case studies are defined as a descriptive way of
collecting and interpreting information (White, 2000:29). In the first place the decision
for a case study approach is based on the fact that it is considered to be suitable to
investigate situations, which are complex and involve a number of different issues.
Added to this, the idea is supported of giving the work a `reality' and looking at the
situation as a whole. Moreover, a case study approach will always generate empirical
data and information, so that the researcher will not be solely dependent on existing
published work. Also, feasibility will be increased with regard to time and monetary
constraints since research can be carried out by the single researcher.
In the following paragraph relevant data collection techniques are mentioned regarding
primary and secondary sources. Great importance is attached to meetings and interviews
as a valuable source of primary data. They have been used to investigate the point of
view of different interest groups. Interviewees and attended meetings are listed in the
appendix. Due to a limited number of possible interviews, unstructured interviews have
been used to receive a rich source of material and to understand the what, the how and
the why. The real benefit of interviews is seen in the fact that the writer had face time
with the interviewee, so that the use of words in a particular way and any
misunderstandings could be cleared up immediately. Also, during the interview
questions could be re-worded or re-ordered if something unexpected came up.
Particularly, the interview was favoured because of the probable proprietary nature of
the requested information (Saunders, 2000:247). For this reason, establishing personal
contact was considered of utmost importance.
The results of the interviews are integrated in the sections of the dissertation.
Interviewees were assured that they would receive a copy of the dissertation after the
final approval. Secondary sources have been gathered from research in libraries and in
the internet. Sources vary from books, magazines, online documents and newspapers.
They helped to establish the writer's views and to prepare the interviews.
Finally, as White (2000) states in the course of the evaluation process results must be
related to the original aims of the dissertation. He recommends referring back to the
way they have been collected. Regardless of being quantitative or qualitative according
to White (ibid) data must be reduced in the process of interpretation. Since there is no
standard way of analysing results he encourages an individual approach. Within this
dissertation the process of interpretation was taken in two major steps. The results have
been gone through and divided into categories and ideas. Subsequently they could be
linked with already identified ideas in the literature or more general themes could be
formed.
Dissertation
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A special note was given to interviewees' quotes that seem to summarise an idea that
has been identified. The Harvard system was used as a referencing system. Within this
tree-part work information sources are listed for each part separately in the appendix.
Translations are provided on page VII in order to facilitate the understanding of special
terminology and abbreviations.
To round off this section, limitations of the chosen approach ought to be mentioned.
Case studies tend to be subjective. Since with all primary data from interviews there
may be a problem of bias, reliability and validity, the whole issue of generalisation
needed to be handled with caution. Secondary data already contains the personal view
of its author and may have been collected with a different intention. For this reason, it
was analysed critically.
Dissertation
International Management Consulting
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Part One: Higher Education in Germany
1.1. Introduction
It is believed that the European university has its roots in the schools of ancient Greece,
whose tradition lived on in the Roman Empire and in the Arabic world. But, as Hödl
and Zegelin (1999:360) assert, only the institutions, described as universitas
magistrorum scolarium that were founded approximately at the same time in Paris and
Bologna in the 12
th
century and soon in other places, showed intellectual dynamic and
the power to change society. Established with the aim of combining research with
teaching, they sought to legitimate their existence through church and state. With
universities being founded in the 14
th
century in Prague, Vienna, Heidelberg and
Cologne, German institutions also can look back at a very old academic tradition.
By way of introduction a brief summary will be given of the most striking aspects
influencing the present reform attempts in German higher education. Throughout the
centuries universities in general were subject to different influences. The importance of
the universities' autonomy for its future development has always been and still is an
issue under discussion. The reform experiences of the 18
th
and 19
th
century, influenced
by Francis Bacon, Leibnitz, and Humboldt, underline the argument that autonomy is not
only a guarantee for scientific freedom, but also the force that drives academic
performance in the competing disciplines and universities (Kamp, 1995:11-21).
At the beginning of the 19
th
century the organisational reorientation of the German
university was based on Humbold's redefinition of the university's function, namely
indivisibility of research and teaching (ibid). This principle helped German universities
to gain considerable scientific prestige. Through the integration of natural sciences
universities' spectrum of science changed fundamentally, and they developed into
worldwide-accepted institutions (ibid).
However, as outlined in the following, with the beginning of the 20
th
century major
changes occurred. As far as research is concerned non-university governmental research
institutions came into being. At present research is conducted mainly by three sectors in
Germany (Hödl and Zegelin, 1999): the university institutes, the non-university research
institutes and the research institutes of industry. The university constitutes the biggest
government-subsidised research organisation, with the most important institutions being
the Max-Planck-Society (founded 1948) and the Frauenhofer-Society (founded 1949).
Their existence fundamentally depends on the education of future scientists at
universities, and as Hödl and Zegelin (ibid:79) say, science for its part, provides "...the
decisive `material' for an accepted education and therefore for the existence of the
university."
Also, university education was integrated into the state education system as major parts
of society started to gain more access to education. It formed the tertiary level. As the
education system was based on egalitarian principles there were a number of issues
which universities (ibid:56) had to cope with simultaneously:
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International Management Consulting
9
an increase of the number of students, a decrease in funding, but also a rise in
governmental, industrial and social expectations. In accordance with the above-
mentioned requirements universities of applied sciences were established and gained
much political support at the end of the 1960s. The idea behind this type of higher
education institutions was to provide education with a strong practice-oriented training
component (bmbf, 2003).
Despite continuous reforms since the declared "education disaster" at the beginning of
the 1960s, German higher education is considered (Hödl and Zegelin, 1999:22) to find
itself in a continuous cycle of crises. Before looking at current requirements the German
higher education system will be described.
1.2. The German System of Higher Education
1.2.1. Background
Higher education institutions constitute a higher education system that is founded,
organised, regulated, and financed by the state. However, owing to a general tendency
towards deregulation, increased autonomy and competition the German system of
higher education is going to change (Hödl and Zegelin, 1999). Below, initial attempts
will be outlined.
The main legal and financial responsibility of education rests with the 16 states of the
Federal Republic of Germany. The Standing Conference of the State Ministers of
Education and the Arts is responsible for implementing policies that must be co-
ordinated nation-wide. With a General Act on Higher Education that consists of
common guiding principles of post secondary education, legislative powers are exerted
by the federal government as co-legislator (Künzel, 1998:77).
The General Act on Higher Education was passed in 1976, when the financial
requirements of the expanding academic sector began to grow beyond the means of the
federal states (ibid:78). By means of this act a reform process was initiated, which was
based on external political influence. After being modified in 1990 and 1998 it was
finally updated with the 6th amendment in 2002 and provides universities more
autonomy and responsibility. As Müller-Böling (2000:45) remarks, it stands out from
the former acts because of its "creative gaps". Organisation and leadership structures for
instance, which in former years have been legally stated, are now under the new General
Act the responsibility of the single higher education institutions. They are free to
organise themselves in accordance with their respective needs, their educational
mandate and also according to their size, tradition and culture (ibid). Also the federal
states are opening their state higher education act to new forms of legal bodies, where
the responsibility will continue to lie with the state; for example public law foundations
as university-maintaining bodies. Moreover, private higher education institutions are
being promoted in the hope of reducing the financial burden of the federal states
(Landfried, 2003). A revolutionary step is seen to be the salary legislation reform for
professors, which is currently being implemented (Müller-Böling, 2003).
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As already mentioned above the financial responsibility for higher education rests with
the state. The basic funding comes from the budget of the respective federal state
(Anderbrügge, 1998:248) and "...covers the basic needs in personnel, administration,
maintenance of buildings, investments and other expenditure for teaching and research."
The redevelopment and building of higher education institutions and their equipment is
financed by both the state and the federal government.
The allocation of funds for research and teaching occurs annually mainly by means of a
key, which differs from state to state and takes into account parameters involving needs
as well as results. Within the higher education institutions internal budgets are again
distributed according to a key (ibid:249). Increasingly the number of students is one of
the basic criteria for the allocation of funds (Müller-Böling, 2003). The management of
these funds takes place on a financial bases (Kameralistik). As will be described later,
there is a trend towards enhanced financial autonomy and lump-sum budgeting
(see:3.4.2.). Responsibilities for deciding on the expenditure of public grants are shifted
from the political-administrative sector to the higher education institutions, since it is
widely believed that decentralised decisions are characterised by better knowledge of
needs and by greater flexibility. Higher education institutions now have the opportunity
to negotiate goals and responsibilities and how these are going to be financed by means
of contractual agreements with the state. If higher education institutions receive a lump-
sum grant, they are expected to use their freedom by making efficient and effective
resource allocation decisions and to introduce business management calculations,
budgeting and controlling (Anderbrügge, 1998:249).
Other sources such as funding by outside bodies have never played a significant role in
the education sector. Compared to basic state funding they cover less than 15 percent of
expenditure (ibid). Owing to a decrease in expenses for education (see:1.2.3.) and the
debts of the German nation, that are not likely to be reduced in a short term perspective,
they will have to be increasingly considered in the future. The success-oriented
distribution of funds has already led to change in attitude, particularly with regard to
recruiting of finance from other sources. The debate on tuition fees should be mentioned
in this context. According to a survey carried out in 2000 by McKinsey&Company in
the context of the initiative "McKinsey bildet" (Kluge, 2003) the private share in
funding German higher education institutions amounted to only 0.1 percent of the gross
domestic product. Seeing that tuition fees will be extremely beneficial, since they
contribute to an overall financing of state-supported higher education institutions, to
additional tax revenues and public savings, their introduction is urgently recommended.
Take the case of state funding in 1999 of 18.6 billion , the benefit of charged tuition
fees of 3,000 annually amounts to the following in billions per year (ibid):
·
additional funds by means of tuition fees of 4.2 billion ,
that is an increase of 23 percent,
·
additional tax revenues of 1.9 billion ,
·
and public savings of 1.0 billion
by means of reduced time spent on a course owing to increased quality.
Ende der Leseprobe aus 88 Seiten
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- , 2004, Management Consulting at Faculties of Design - Opportunities and Limitations, Hamburg, Bedey Media GmbH, https://www.diplom.de/document/224459
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